History of the Media, Radio, and Television

When were the forms of media created? Whenwas personally hand-selecting the winners and
did advertising first show up? Who owns thelosers on the show.2.It was becoming financially
media?Creation of the various forms ofdifficult for just one advertiser to support an
media*Newspapers & Magazines ~ 1880*Moviesentire show.Around this same time came the
~ 1910*Television ~ 1945*Cable Television ~inception of ratings to measure a show's
1980's*Satellite Television, Internet, Digitalpopularity. Ratings, quite simply, measure the
Communication ~ End of the 20th centuryIn 1920,number of people watching a show. To
radio was first developed, primarily for use by theunderstand why ratings are so important, it's
military, strictly for sendingHistory of the Media -crucial to understand how the television industry
Old Radios messages from one location toworks, through three questions, and their
another. David Sternoff, the then-president ofrespective answers:1.Who owns television? [The
RCA, first had the idea to sell radio sets tonetworks]2.What is sold on television? [Viewer's
consumers, or what were then called radiotime, not television shows]3.Who are the
receivers. However, consumers needed a reasoncustomers of television? [Advertisers, not
to buy radios, so RCA was the first to set upviewers]This might be a counterintuitive concept
radio stations all over the country. Between 1920for some. The networks, which own television,
and 1922, 400 radio stations were set up, startingareHistory of the Media - Old Television the
with KBKA in Pittsburgh. Stations were also set upbuyers of shows, not the sellers. On the other
by universities, newspapers, police departments,hand, they sell our eyeballs, so to speak, to
hotels, and labor unions.*By 1923, there were 600advertisers. Networks want the maximum
radio stations across the United States, and $83possible profit from buying and selling time, both
million worth of sets had been sold.The biggestviewers' time, and advertisers' time.The primary
difference in radio before and after 1923 wasmeasure of television ratings, which determine the
that the first advertising was not heard on theprice of that time being bought and sold, is AC
radio until 1923. RCA at the time was made up ofNielsen, an independent company which provides
four companies:*AT&T*General Electric*Unitedinformation as to who watches what on television.
Fruit*WestinghouseUnited Fruit was one of theCurrently, about 4,000 households are used to
first global corporations, and one of the first torepresent the national viewing of television. In the
advertise on the radio. The AT&T division of RCA1980's, only 1,200 households were used. Some
first thought about selling time on the air tohouseholds have an electronic device installed on
companies, which marked the start of "tolltheir television which tracks what they watch,
broadcasting." WEAF was the first station towhile others keep a diary of viewing habits.There
operate this way, causing widespread outrage,are two measures for determining a show's
and accusation of "polluting the airwaves."Becauseaudience. One is the rating, and the other is the
of this controversy, the practice of sellingshare.*Rating: Percentage of total homes with
advertising time was called "trade name publicity."televisions tuned into a particular show.*Share:
Sponsors linked their name with a program on thePercentage of those watching television at a
air, rather than advertising a specific product in aparticular time who are tuned into a particular
30 second "commercial" as we know itshow.The share is always greater than the rating.
today.Why did AT&T decide to experiment withRatings are more important for advertisers, and
charging companies for air time?AT&T was notshare is more important to the
making any money from broadcasting at the timenetworks.Example:*Total households with
since they only made transmitters, not receivers.televisions: 150 million*Total households watching
They only made money when new radio stationstelevision at 8pm on Monday nights: 90
bought the equipment required to broadcast. Theymillion*Total households watching American Idol at
did not make money from consumers buying8pm on Monday nights: 45 million*Therefore:
radios.AT&T also started the practice of payingRating: 30, Share: 50It's important to note how
performers for their time on the air, rather thanmany factors can skew the results. Shows cost
only volunteers, which was standard practice forproducers much more than the networks typically
radio content up until that point.The first radiopay them for those shows. The way for
networkIn 1926, RCA set up the first radioproducers to make money is by getting the
network, NBC. They decided it was morenetworks to renew the show, in order to have a
effective and efficient to produce shows in Newshot at making money from syndication on other
York City, and then link the main radio stationchannels, also knows as reruns. That is the case
with stations all across the country, connected bywhen individual stations (say for example, the
AT&T (another RCA company) phone lines. (NowMiami affiliate of ABC wants to carry Seinfeld),
television networks are linked by satellite to theirbuy the rights to a show from the producers of
affiliates).This was the beginning of the networkthat show. Shows that last only one season, for
affiliates system. The ideal network makes surethe most part, lose millions of dollars. One of the
everyone in the country is capable of listening tomost important factors in whether shows will be
their signal. NBC at the time had tworenewed or not is their rating.This brings us to
philosophies:*Radio content was a "public service,"how ratings can be skewed. For example, if a
whose function was to sell radios.*Radio contentshow has a 20 share, and it needs a 25 share to
was designed to generate income frombe renewed for another season, what might the
advertising.History of the Media In 1927, theproducers do? In principle, they need to convince
second network was formed. It was CBS,another 5% of the people watching television
started by William Paley. Paley was the first towhen their show is on to watch their show; this is
think that networks could make money strictlyno simple task, as that involves convincing millions
from advertising, not even getting involved in theof people. However, since the ratings are based
sales of radios. Like AT&T, CBS did not makeon those 4,000 Nielsen households, that means
radios. From the start, they made their moneythat they could convince just 200 Nielsen
from selling advertising.The rising of radiohouseholds to watch their show, which would
networks caused the Radio Act of 1927 to beincrease the share from 20 to 25. This is why
passed, which established the FRC, or what isNielsen households must be kept totally secret
now known as the FCC, to allocate broadcastfrom the networks. When the Nielsen households
licenses. The need for such an organization washave leaked to the networks, one way which
brought on by the fact that airwaves are limitedthey got people to watch their show was by
resources, and broadcasting itself is a scarceoffering viewers a small sum of money for filling
public resource. By the 1930's, the structure ofout a survey about a commercial which they
radio have been set by the commercial format,were told would play only during a particular show.
although advertising never dominated radio like itSince they had to watch that channel while their
would television later on.In the 1920's and '30's,show was on, this would boost the share.Once
radio programs were divided into two groups.ratings are determined, advertising prices are set
Sponsored shows, which had advertisers, andby two factors:* The size of the audience.* The
unsponsored shows, which did not. The radiodemographics (income, age, gender, occupation,
station paid for the unsponsored shows. Theetc) of the audience.In short, the job of television
sponsored shows, on the other hand, wereprograms is to collect our time as a product,
created entirely by the company sponsoring thewhich they then sell to advertisers. Programs
show; advertisers were totally in charge of thehave to support the advertising, delivering viewers
radio station's content. The content becamein the best possible state of mind for buying when
advertising. Radio set the precedent for television,the time for the commercials comes, which brings
in that the same companies that controlled radious to the Golden Age of Television.The 1950's are
early on went on to control television.Soonconsidered the "Golden Age of Television." During
thereafter, television inherited the structure ofthis time, something called the "Anthology Series,"
radio. In the '40's, during the rise of television,where different actors each week took part in a
RCA also held a monopoly on all television setsshow gained History of the Media - I Love
sold. By 1945-1955, advertising had taken over allLucypopularity across the board...that is, with
of television. Television was organized around theeveryone except for advertisers. The anthology
premise of selling things. The entire televisionseries format was not right for advertisers, as it
industry was creating a political atmosphere ofcovered topics which involved psychological
suspicion and fear. Senator Joseph McCarthy, theconfrontations which did not leave the viewers in
founder of McCarthyism, which was based on thethe proper state of mind for buying the products
fear of Communism, and the HUAC (Houseshown to them between program segments. The
Un-American Activities Committee, began tosubject matter of the anthology series was of
question people involved in television about theirthe type that undermined the ads, almost making
beliefs and associations.What affected television inthem seem fraudulent.This brought up the
its early stages?*Politics (McCarthyism /question of what to network executives actually
HUAC).*Blacklists: From almost the inception ofwant shows to do? The answer is not to watch a
television, many writers, directors, and actorsprogram that makes them feel good, makes
were considered to be pro-Communist and/orthem laugh, or excites them, but rather to watch
un-American.Certain topics were totally off-limitsthe television for a set amount of time. With so
at the time for television, particularly issues ofmany new shows being proposed, standards
race relations in the 1960's. Overall, networksbegan to be intentionally, or unintentionally, laid out
were not happy with the political situation forfor what shows could and couldn't do. Risks could
television in the 1960's, both in terms of theonly be taken at the beginning and/or end of
blacklists, and of the fact that when every showshows. Laugh tracks were conceived to tell the
had one sponsor, that sponsor controlled theaudience when to laugh. Programs began being
entire program. Networks preferred to control thetested with audiences prior to being put on
program, by way of moving to multiple sponsorstelevision and/or radio. Show writers now had to
advertisers, where networks would retain controlwrite shows that would test well.Naturally, this
of the show, and advertisers would buy time incaused many of the same elements and themes
between the programming.In the 1950's, networksto appear in all shows. This was the beginning of
decided to eliminate the practice of sponsorsrecombinant television culture, where the same
controlling the shows with a move to spot selling,elements are endlessly repeated, recombined, and
or advertisements between programs, as wemixed.This same culture is what perpetuated the
know it today. What caused the move to spotidea that people watch television, not specific
selling?1.Discovery of fraud in the quiz shows onshows. While people certainly choose to watch
television. Quiz shows were extremely popular atcertain shows instead of others, people less
the time, and were liked by the networks, thecommonly choose to watch television instead of
sponsors, and the viewers alike. It turned out,other things. People watch television. Regardless
however, that quiz shows were largely fixed.of what was on, television viewing rates were
Charles Van Doren on "21" became a huge starextremely stable.David Pakman is editor
due to his repeated wins, until it came out thatadminstrator of politics and media website Hear
the whole thing had been fixed. In the case ofthe Issues ( a website frequented and praised by
"The $64,000 Question," the owner of Revlonmany mainstream journalist and pundits.