| When were the forms of media created? When | | | | was personally hand-selecting the winners and |
| did advertising first show up? Who owns the | | | | losers on the show.2.It was becoming |
| media?Creation of the various forms of | | | | financially difficult for just one advertiser |
| media*Newspapers & Magazines ~ 1880*Movies ~ | | | | to support an entire show.Around this same |
| 1910*Television ~ 1945*Cable Television ~ | | | | time came the inception of ratings to measure |
| 1980's*Satellite Television, Internet, | | | | a show's popularity. Ratings, quite simply, |
| Digital Communication ~ End of the 20th | | | | measure the number of people watching a show. |
| centuryIn 1920, radio was first developed, | | | | To understand why ratings are so important, |
| primarily for use by the military, strictly | | | | it's crucial to understand how the television |
| for sendingHistory of the Media - Old Radios | | | | industry works, through three questions, and |
| messages from one location to another. David | | | | their respective answers:1.Who owns |
| Sternoff, the then-president of RCA, first | | | | television? [The networks]2.What is sold on |
| had the idea to sell radio sets to consumers, | | | | television? [Viewer's time, not television |
| or what were then called radio receivers. | | | | shows]3.Who are the customers of television? |
| However, consumers needed a reason to buy | | | | [Advertisers, not viewers]This might be a |
| radios, so RCA was the first to set up radio | | | | counterintuitive concept for some. The |
| stations all over the country. Between 1920 | | | | networks, which own television, areHistory of |
| and 1922, 400 radio stations were set up, | | | | the Media - Old Television the buyers of |
| starting with KBKA in Pittsburgh. Stations | | | | shows, not the sellers. On the other hand, |
| were also set up by universities, newspapers, | | | | they sell our eyeballs, so to speak, to |
| police departments, hotels, and labor | | | | advertisers. Networks want the maximum |
| unions.*By 1923, there were 600 radio | | | | possible profit from buying and selling time, |
| stations across the United States, and $83 | | | | both viewers' time, and advertisers' time.The |
| million worth of sets had been sold.The | | | | primary measure of television ratings, which |
| biggest difference in radio before and after | | | | determine the price of that time being bought |
| 1923 was that the first advertising was not | | | | and sold, is AC Nielsen, an independent |
| heard on the radio until 1923. RCA at the | | | | company which provides information as to who |
| time was made up of four | | | | watches what on television. Currently, about |
| companies:*AT&T*General Electric*United | | | | 4,000 households are used to represent the |
| Fruit*WestinghouseUnited Fruit was one of the | | | | national viewing of television. In the |
| first global corporations, and one of the | | | | 1980's, only 1,200 households were used. Some |
| first to advertise on the radio. The AT&T | | | | households have an electronic device |
| division of RCA first thought about selling | | | | installed on their television which tracks |
| time on the air to companies, which marked | | | | what they watch, while others keep a diary of |
| the start of "toll broadcasting." WEAF was | | | | viewing habits.There are two measures for |
| the first station to operate this way, | | | | determining a show's audience. One is the |
| causing widespread outrage, and accusation of | | | | rating, and the other is the share.*Rating: |
| "polluting the airwaves."Because of this | | | | Percentage of total homes with televisions |
| controversy, the practice of selling | | | | tuned into a particular show.*Share: |
| advertising time was called "trade name | | | | Percentage of those watching television at a |
| publicity." Sponsors linked their name with a | | | | particular time who are tuned into a |
| program on the air, rather than advertising a | | | | particular show.The share is always greater |
| specific product in a 30 second "commercial" | | | | than the rating. Ratings are more important |
| as we know it today.Why did AT&T decide to | | | | for advertisers, and share is more important |
| experiment with charging companies for air | | | | to the networks.Example:*Total households |
| time?AT&T was not making any money from | | | | with televisions: 150 million*Total |
| broadcasting at the time since they only made | | | | households watching television at 8pm on |
| transmitters, not receivers. They only made | | | | Monday nights: 90 million*Total households |
| money when new radio stations bought the | | | | watching American Idol at 8pm on Monday |
| equipment required to broadcast. They did not | | | | nights: 45 million*Therefore: Rating: 30, |
| make money from consumers buying radios.AT&T | | | | Share: 50It's important to note how many |
| also started the practice of paying | | | | factors can skew the results. Shows cost |
| performers for their time on the air, rather | | | | producers much more than the networks |
| than only volunteers, which was standard | | | | typically pay them for those shows. The way |
| practice for radio content up until that | | | | for producers to make money is by getting the |
| point.The first radio networkIn 1926, RCA set | | | | networks to renew the show, in order to have |
| up the first radio network, NBC. They decided | | | | a shot at making money from syndication on |
| it was more effective and efficient to | | | | other channels, also knows as reruns. That is |
| produce shows in New York City, and then link | | | | the case when individual stations (say for |
| the main radio station with stations all | | | | example, the Miami affiliate of ABC wants to |
| across the country, connected by AT&T | | | | carry Seinfeld), buy the rights to a show |
| (another RCA company) phone lines. (Now | | | | from the producers of that show. Shows that |
| television networks are linked by satellite | | | | last only one season, for the most part, lose |
| to their affiliates).This was the beginning | | | | millions of dollars. One of the most |
| of the network affiliates system. The ideal | | | | important factors in whether shows will be |
| network makes sure everyone in the country is | | | | renewed or not is their rating.This brings us |
| capable of listening to their signal. NBC at | | | | to how ratings can be skewed. For example, if |
| the time had two philosophies:*Radio content | | | | a show has a 20 share, and it needs a 25 |
| was a "public service," whose function was to | | | | share to be renewed for another season, what |
| sell radios.*Radio content was designed to | | | | might the producers do? In principle, they |
| generate income from advertising.History of | | | | need to convince another 5% of the people |
| the Media In 1927, the second network was | | | | watching television when their show is on to |
| formed. It was CBS, started by William Paley. | | | | watch their show; this is no simple task, as |
| Paley was the first to think that networks | | | | that involves convincing millions of people. |
| could make money strictly from advertising, | | | | However, since the ratings are based on those |
| not even getting involved in the sales of | | | | 4,000 Nielsen households, that means that |
| radios. Like AT&T, CBS did not make radios. | | | | they could convince just 200 Nielsen |
| From the start, they made their money from | | | | households to watch their show, which would |
| selling advertising.The rising of radio | | | | increase the share from 20 to 25. This is why |
| networks caused the Radio Act of 1927 to be | | | | Nielsen households must be kept totally |
| passed, which established the FRC, or what is | | | | secret from the networks. When the Nielsen |
| now known as the FCC, to allocate broadcast | | | | households have leaked to the networks, one |
| licenses. The need for such an organization | | | | way which they got people to watch their show |
| was brought on by the fact that airwaves are | | | | was by offering viewers a small sum of money |
| limited resources, and broadcasting itself is | | | | for filling out a survey about a commercial |
| a scarce public resource. By the 1930's, the | | | | which they were told would play only during a |
| structure of radio have been set by the | | | | particular show. Since they had to watch that |
| commercial format, although advertising never | | | | channel while their show was on, this would |
| dominated radio like it would television | | | | boost the share.Once ratings are determined, |
| later on.In the 1920's and '30's, radio | | | | advertising prices are set by two factors:* |
| programs were divided into two groups. | | | | The size of the audience.* The |
| Sponsored shows, which had advertisers, and | | | | demographics (income, age, gender, |
| unsponsored shows, which did not. The radio | | | | occupation, etc) of the audience.In short, |
| station paid for the unsponsored shows. The | | | | the job of television programs is to collect |
| sponsored shows, on the other hand, were | | | | our time as a product, which they then sell |
| created entirely by the company sponsoring | | | | to advertisers. Programs have to support the |
| the show; advertisers were totally in charge | | | | advertising, delivering viewers in the best |
| of the radio station's content. The content | | | | possible state of mind for buying when the |
| became advertising. Radio set the precedent | | | | time for the commercials comes, which brings |
| for television, in that the same companies | | | | us to the Golden Age of Television.The 1950's |
| that controlled radio early on went on to | | | | are considered the "Golden Age of |
| control television.Soon thereafter, | | | | Television." During this time, something |
| television inherited the structure of radio. | | | | called the "Anthology Series," where |
| In the '40's, during the rise of television, | | | | different actors each week took part in a |
| RCA also held a monopoly on all television | | | | show gained History of the Media - I Love |
| sets sold. By 1945-1955, advertising had | | | | Lucypopularity across the board...that is, |
| taken over all of television. Television was | | | | with everyone except for advertisers. The |
| organized around the premise of selling | | | | anthology series format was not right for |
| things. The entire television industry was | | | | advertisers, as it covered topics which |
| creating a political atmosphere of suspicion | | | | involved psychological confrontations which |
| and fear. Senator Joseph McCarthy, the | | | | did not leave the viewers in the proper state |
| founder of McCarthyism, which was based on | | | | of mind for buying the products shown to them |
| the fear of Communism, and the HUAC (House | | | | between program segments. The subject matter |
| Un-American Activities Committee, began to | | | | of the anthology series was of the type that |
| question people involved in television about | | | | undermined the ads, almost making them seem |
| their beliefs and associations.What affected | | | | fraudulent.This brought up the question of |
| television in its early stages?*Politics | | | | what to network executives actually want |
| (McCarthyism / HUAC).*Blacklists: From almost | | | | shows to do? The answer is not to watch a |
| the inception of television, many writers, | | | | program that makes them feel good, makes them |
| directors, and actors were considered to be | | | | laugh, or excites them, but rather to watch |
| pro-Communist and/or un-American.Certain | | | | the television for a set amount of time. With |
| topics were totally off-limits at the time | | | | so many new shows being proposed, standards |
| for television, particularly issues of race | | | | began to be intentionally, or |
| relations in the 1960's. Overall, networks | | | | unintentionally, laid out for what shows |
| were not happy with the political situation | | | | could and couldn't do. Risks could only be |
| for television in the 1960's, both in terms | | | | taken at the beginning and/or end of shows. |
| of the blacklists, and of the fact that when | | | | Laugh tracks were conceived to tell the |
| every show had one sponsor, that sponsor | | | | audience when to laugh. Programs began being |
| controlled the entire program. Networks | | | | tested with audiences prior to being put on |
| preferred to control the program, by way of | | | | television and/or radio. Show writers now had |
| moving to multiple sponsors/advertisers, | | | | to write shows that would test |
| where networks would retain control of the | | | | well.Naturally, this caused many of the same |
| show, and advertisers would buy time in | | | | elements and themes to appear in all shows. |
| between the programming.In the 1950's, | | | | This was the beginning of recombinant |
| networks decided to eliminate the practice of | | | | television culture, where the same elements |
| sponsors controlling the shows with a move to | | | | are endlessly repeated, recombined, and |
| spot selling, or advertisements between | | | | mixed.This same culture is what perpetuated |
| programs, as we know it today. What caused | | | | the idea that people watch television, not |
| the move to spot selling?1.Discovery of fraud | | | | specific shows. While people certainly choose |
| in the quiz shows on television. Quiz shows | | | | to watch certain shows instead of others, |
| were extremely popular at the time, and were | | | | people less commonly choose to watch |
| liked by the networks, the sponsors, and the | | | | television instead of other things. People |
| viewers alike. It turned out, however, that | | | | watch television. Regardless of what was on, |
| quiz shows were largely fixed. Charles Van | | | | television viewing rates were extremely |
| Doren on "21" became a huge star due to his | | | | stable.David Pakman is editor/adminstrator of |
| repeated wins, until it came out that the | | | | politics and media website Hear the Issues ( |
| whole thing had been fixed. In the case of | | | | a website frequented and praised by many |
| "The $64,000 Question," the owner of Revlon | | | | mainstream journalist and pundits. |